Historical Inequality

Core nations have an attenuated relationship between GDP per capita and emissions per capita at higher levels of economic activity, while those in the semiperiphery have a relationship that approximates the curve of a U. The majority of variation in emissions is correlated with time-invariant variables, not with time-variant predictors, such as GDP.

While urbanization is associated with increases in CIWB, the relationship between urban development and CIWB is vastly different in developed nations without slums than in under-developed nations with slums.